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03/03/2026

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CA-03/03/2026

• Founded: 331 BCE by Alexander the Great.
• Location: Northern coast of Egypt, west of the Nile Delta.
• Historic Importance:
  • Home to the Pharos Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
  • Site of the Library of Alexandria, a legendary center of knowledge.
• Modern Role:
  • Largest port in Egypt, handling millions of tons of cargo annually.
  • Operated by the Alexandria Port Authority.
  • Size: 16 km² harbour, 22.8 km² land area, with 67 berths.
  • Annual cargo tonnage (2012): 17.6 million tons.
  • Annual container volume (2012): 1.44 million units.

• Type: Three‑masted barque sail training ship.
• Builder: Goa Shipyard Limited.
• Commissioned: 27 January 2012.
• Home Port: Kochi, Kerala (Southern Naval Command).
• Displacement: 513 tons.
• Length: 54 m; Beam: 8.53 m; Draught: 4.5 m.
• Mainmast Height: 34.5 m above waterline.
• Propulsion: 2 Kirloskar Cummins diesel engines (320 hp each) + sails (1,035 m² sail area).
• Complement: 61 personnel.

• Training Platform: Provides practical sail training for naval cadets and coast guard officers, emphasizing traditional seamanship alongside modern navigation.
• Sister Ship: INS Tarangini (commissioned in 1997).
• Cultural Symbol: “Sudarshini” means beautiful lady Sundari, named after Buddha’s younger half‑sister.

• Retention of Senior Accounts Officers (Sr AOs) transferred via Inter-Ministry Transfer.​
• Timelines for March Preliminary Supplementary-I and II submissions for FY 2025-26.​
• Transfer/posting of Assistant Accounts Officers (AAOs) (Order No 749, March 2).​
• Recording of Annual Performance Appraisal Reports (APARs) for 2025-26.

• Position: Principal Accounting Adviser to the Government of India.
• Department: Works under the Department of Expenditure, Ministry of Finance.
• Mandate: Establishes and maintains a technically sound management accounting system.
• Reports: Prepares monthly and annual analysis of expenditure, revenues, borrowings, and fiscal indicators.
• Constitutional Role: Under Article 150 of the Constitution, the CGA submits Annual Appropriation Accounts (Civil) and Union Finance Accounts to Parliament, on the advice of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG).
• MIS Reports: Publishes Accounts at a Glance for Members of Parliament.

• Accounting & Reporting
  • Compilation of Union Government accounts.
  • Preparation of fiscal reports for Parliament.
• Financial Systems
  • Oversees Public Financial Management System (PFMS).
  • Implements Treasury Single Account (TSA) and e-Bill systems.
• Audit & Monitoring
  • Internal audit of accounts.
  • Monitoring audit paras and compliance.
• Capacity Building
  • Training and workshops for financial officers.
  • Manuals and guidelines for accounting practices.

• Data Accuracy: Ensuring timely and error-free compilation of accounts across ministries.
• Digital Transition: Managing large-scale adoption of PFMS and TSA across departments.
• Coordination: Balancing responsibilities between CGA (accounting) and CAG (auditing).
• Transparency: Maintaining public trust through proactive disclosure and open data initiatives.

• North India: Experiencing summer-like heat in early March, with maximum temperatures significantly above normal.
• Delhi-NCR: Forecasted to reach 34–35°C, about 4–6°C above average.
• Himalayan Region: Light rainfall and snowfall expected in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh between March 6–11.
• Rest of India: Above-normal temperatures reported in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka, with highs around 35–39°C.

• Founded: 15 January 1875 (151 years old)
• Parent Ministry: Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India
• Headquarters: Mausam Bhavan, Lodi Road, New Delhi
• Director General: Mrutyunjay Mohapatra
• Functions:
  • Weather forecasting (short-term & long-term)
  • Cyclone warnings and disaster alerts
  • Seismology and earthquake monitoring
  • Climate research and data collection

• Disaster Management: Provides cyclone and flood warnings to safeguard lives.
• Agriculture: Issues monsoon forecasts critical for farmers.
• Aviation & Shipping: Supplies weather data for safe operations.
• Public Services: Runs the Mausam app and district-level forecasts for citizens.

• Area: 730.24 sq km (281.95 sq mi)
• Established: Declared a Tiger Reserve on 9 June 2014
• Visitors (2024): ~38,183
• Governing Body: National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA)

• Flagship Species: Royal Bengal Tiger
• Other Wildlife: Leopards, swamp deer, wild boar, jackals, and numerous bird species (ideal for birdwatching safaris).
• Flora: Dense sal forests, grasslands, and wetlands typical of the Terai ecosystem.

• Part of the Terai Arc Landscape, which connects protected areas across India and Nepal, crucial for tiger migration and genetic diversity.
• Recognized as a critical tiger habitat in Northern India.
• Supports eco-development committees to involve local communities in conservation.

• Length: ~729 km (453 miles)
• Basin Size: ~74,500 km² (28,800 sq mi)
• Average Discharge: ~2,500 m³/s
• Countries: China (Tibet), Nepal, India
• States/Regions: Tibet Autonomous Region, Koshi Province (Nepal), Bihar (India)
• Major Cities Along Course: Saptari, Sunsari (Nepal), Supaul, Katihar, Bhagalpur (India)

• Source: Formed by the confluence of Sun Kosi, Arun Kosi, and Tamur Kosi rivers in the Himalayas (Nepal & Tibet).
• Course:
  • Flows southward through Nepal, draining the eastern third of the country.
  • Breaks through the Chatra Gorge in the Siwalik Hills.
  • Enters India in Bihar, where it spreads widely due to its unstable course.
• Mouth: Joins the Ganges River near Kursela in Bihar.

• The Kosi River has shifted westward by over 100 km in the past 200 years, making it highly unpredictable.
• Known as the “Sorrow of Bihar” because of devastating floods that regularly affect millions of people in northern Bihar.
• Floods occur due to heavy Himalayan rainfall, silt deposition, and embankment breaches.
• The 2008 flood displaced nearly 3 million people in Bihar, highlighting its destructive potential.

• Agriculture: Provides irrigation but also destroys farmland during floods.
• Hydropower Potential: Nepal has several proposed projects to harness its flow.
• Cultural Significance: Revered in Hindu traditions as part of the sacred Ganges basin.
• Environmental Role: Supports diverse ecosystems in the Himalayan foothills and plains.

• Flood Management: Embankments often fail, worsening disasters.
• Sedimentation: Heavy silt load raises riverbed, increasing flood risk.
• Climate Change: Intensifies rainfall variability, making floods more frequent.
• Human Impact: Recurrent displacement, loss of crops, and infrastructure damage.

• Chemical composition: H₂SO₄·xSO₃ (sulfuric acid with dissolved sulfur trioxide).
• Common name: Fuming sulfuric acid.
• Appearance: Colorless liquid that emits dense white fumes in moist air.
• Variants: When x = 1, it forms disulfuric acid (H₂S₂O₇), also called pyrosulfuric acid.

• Corrosive nature: Causes severe burns on skin contact.
• Respiratory danger: Inhalation of fumes can irritate lungs, throat, and eyes.
• Environmental impact: Dense fumes reduce visibility and contaminate air.
• Recent incident: In Palghar (March 2026), 2,600 people including 1,600 students were evacuated; some reported minor eye irritation.

• Sulfuric acid production: Oleum is an intermediate in the Contact Process.
• Chemical manufacturing: Used in explosives, dyes, and pharmaceuticals.
• Dehydrating agent: Removes water in specialized reactions.

• Targeted sectors: Steel, cement, refineries, chemicals, and power are among the hardest to decarbonise. CCU offers a pathway to reduce emissions without halting growth.
• Net-zero by 2070: This investment aligns with India’s long-term climate commitment, providing a bridge technology while renewable energy scales up.
• Circular carbon economy: By turning CO₂ into fuels, chemicals, and building materials, India reduces waste and creates new industrial value chains.

• Steel & cement: Captured CO₂ can be mineralised into concrete, reducing emissions from construction.
• Refineries & chemicals: CO₂ can be converted into methanol, ethanol, and polymers, supporting green chemistry.
• Power sector: Integration with thermal plants could mitigate coal’s carbon footprint while India transitions to renewables.

• High costs & energy demand: CCU requires significant energy input; if powered by fossil fuels, benefits diminish.
• Technology readiness: Most CCU solutions are at pilot or demonstration scale; scaling them across India’s vast industrial base will be complex.
• Policy support: Carbon pricing, subsidies, and international collaboration will be essential to make CCU economically viable.

• CCU captures CO₂ emissions and transforms them into commercially valuable products.
• Difference from CCS: CCS stores CO₂ permanently underground; CCU reuses it in industrial processes.
• Goal: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions while creating economic value.

1. Capture: CO₂ is separated from industrial flue gases or directly from ambient air.
2. Conversion: Captured CO₂ is processed using chemical, biological, or mineralisation methods.
3. Utilisation: Converted CO₂ is used in:
   • Synthetic fuels (methanol, ethanol, aviation fuel).
   • Chemicals & plastics (urea, polymers).
   • Building materials (cement, concrete).
   • Food & beverages (carbonation in drinks).

• Industrial decarbonisation: Helps heavy industries like steel, cement, and chemicals reduce emissions.
• Circular economy: Captured carbon becomes a raw material, reducing reliance on fossil fuels.
• Climate mitigation: Supports net-zero targets by 2070 (India’s commitment).

• Length: 2,640 km (1,640 miles)
• Established: November 12, 1893, under the Durand Line Agreement between Sir Henry Mortimer Durand (British India) and Emir Abdur Rahman Khan of Afghanistan
• Geography: Runs from the Iran–Afghanistan border in the west to the China–Pakistan border in the east, cutting through rugged terrain including the Karakoram Range, Spīn Ghar (White Mountains), and the Khyber Pass
• Tribal Impact: Divides Pashtun and Baloch tribal regions, leaving communities split across two countries
• Recognition: Pakistan considers it the official boundary, but Afghanistan has never formally recognized it

• Treaty of Gandamak (1879): Earlier agreement defining spheres of influence between British India and Afghanistan.
• Durand Line Agreement (1893): Formalized the boundary.
• Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919: Ratified the border after the Third Anglo-Afghan War, though Afghan governments continued to dispute its legitimacy.

• Cross-border Militancy: Taliban and other groups exploit porous sections of the border.
• Civilian Impact: Airstrikes and clashes displace populations along the frontier.
• Regional Stability: Escalations risk drawing in neighboring powers like Iran, China, and India.

• Primary Source: The Sar-i Sang mines in Badakhshan, northeastern Afghanistan, were the world’s main source of lapis lazuli for over 6,000 years.
• Earliest Use: Evidence of lapis beads appears in Mesopotamia during the Late Ubaid period (c. 4500 BCE), marking the beginning of luxury trade beyond essential goods.

• Afghanistan → Iran Plateau → Mesopotamia: Traders carried lapis westward through Iran into Sumerian city-states like Ur and Uruk.
• Afghanistan → Indus Valley: Another branch connected Badakhshan to Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, where lapis was used in jewelry and seals.
• Afghanistan → Egypt: By the 4th millennium BCE, lapis reached Egypt, where it adorned pharaohs’ tombs and sacred artifacts.

• Outbound from Afghanistan: Lapis lazuli, turquoise, and other semi-precious stones.
• Inbound to Afghanistan: Textiles, metals (copper, tin), agricultural products, and crafted goods from Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley.
• Cultural Exchange: Alongside goods, ideas in metallurgy, writing, and urban organization spread across regions.

• Urban Development: The lapis trade helped sustain Mesopotamian city-states by providing luxury goods for elites, reinforcing social hierarchies.
• Religious Symbolism: Lapis was associated with the heavens and divinity; in Mesopotamian texts, it symbolized the starry sky.
• Economic Foundations: This trade route is considered a precursor to the Silk Road, showing how luxury demand drove early globalization.

Feature	Lapis Lazuli Route (c. 4500 BCE)	Silk Road (c. 200 BCE onward)
Main Commodity	Lapis lazuli (luxury stone)	Silk, spices, ceramics, paper
Origin	Sar-i Sang mines, Afghanistan	China (Han dynasty)
Reach	Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley	Europe, Middle East, India
Purpose	Elite luxury, religious use	Mass trade, cultural exchange
Duration	6,000+ years of activity	~1,500 years

• Geography: Rugged terrain of Afghanistan made transport dangerous.
• Political Instability: Control of mines and routes often shifted between tribes and kingdoms.
• Scarcity: Lapis was rare, making it highly valuable but also prone to monopolization and conflict.

• Definition: NAT is a laboratory technique used to directly detect specific nucleic acid sequences of pathogens in blood, tissue, urine, or other samples.
• Key Difference: Unlike antigen or antibody tests, NAT identifies the pathogen’s genetic material, not the body’s immune response.
• Early Detection: Because genetic material appears before antibodies or antigens, NAT enables faster diagnosis.

1. Sample Collection: Blood, swab, or tissue sample is taken.
2. Extraction: Genetic material (DNA/RNA) is isolated.
3. Amplification: Using techniques like PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction), the genetic material is multiplied to detectable levels.
4. Detection: Specific probes identify the pathogen’s unique genetic signature.

• Infectious Diseases: Detects HIV, Hepatitis B & C, COVID-19, malaria, syphilis, and other transfusion-transmissible infections.
• Blood Safety: Widely used in blood banks to prevent transfusion-transmitted infections.
• Genetic Testing: Identifies mutations or genetic markers for inherited diseases.
• Forensics & Research: Used in DNA profiling and molecular biology studies.

• Cost: NAT is more expensive than antigen/antibody tests.
• Infrastructure: Requires advanced labs and trained personnel.
• False Negatives: Possible if viral load is extremely low or sample handling is poor.
• Legal/Policy Issues: In India, there are ongoing debates about making NAT mandatory in blood banks to ensure safe transfusions.

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