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06/01/2026

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CA-06/01/2026

• Cause: Typhoid fever is caused by Salmonella Typhi bacteria.
• Transmission: It spreads through ingestion of food or water contaminated with feces from an infected person.
• Global burden: Around 9 million people fall ill annually, with about 110,000 deaths worldwide.

• Prolonged high fever
• Fatigue and weakness
• Headache and nausea
• Abdominal pain
• Constipation or diarrhea
• Sometimes a rash (rose spots)

• Travelers to Africa, Asia, or Latin America where typhoid is common.
• Living in or visiting rural areas with poor sanitation.
• Unvaccinated individuals are at higher risk.
• In India, outbreaks often occur during monsoon and post-monsoon seasons due to unsafe water supply.

• Antibiotics are the main treatment, but resistance is increasing, making management more complex.
• Vaccination: WHO recommends typhoid conjugate vaccines for children (from 6 months) and adults up to 45–65 years depending on the vaccine.
• Safe practices:
  • Drink boiled or filtered water
  • Eat freshly cooked food
  • Wash hands regularly

• Antibiotic resistance is a growing global threat, making treatment harder.
• Poor sanitation infrastructure in many regions increases outbreak frequency.
• Delayed treatment can lead to life-threatening complications.

• Hydrokinetic Turbine Technology is an emerging renewable energy solution that harnesses the kinetic energy of flowing water—without dams or reservoirs—to generate electricity.

• It converts the kinetic energy of moving water (rivers, tidal streams, canals) directly into electricity, unlike traditional hydropower which relies on water stored at height (potential energy).
• Design: They resemble underwater wind turbines, with blades or rotors placed in flowing water.
• Operation: No need for large civil structures like dams, diversion weirs, or barrages. This makes them more eco-friendly and less disruptive to ecosystems.

• Eco-friendly: Minimal environmental impact since no damming or flooding is required.
• Scalable: Can be deployed in rivers, canals, and tidal streams, making them suitable for rural electrification.
• Continuous Power: Flowing water provides a more predictable and steady energy source compared to solar or wind.
• Cost-effective: Lower infrastructure costs compared to conventional hydropower projects.

• Energy Density: Output depends heavily on water velocity; slower rivers yield less power.
• Durability: Turbines must withstand debris, sediment, and strong currents.
• Grid Integration: Small-scale projects may face challenges in connecting to national grids.
• Maintenance: Underwater equipment requires specialized upkeep.

• Type: Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM)
• Origin: Pakistan, developed by the Air Weapons Complex and GIDS
• Range: Up to 600 km (370 miles)
• Warhead: Conventional, with blast fragmentation and penetration options
• Guidance: Advanced navigation system combining Inertial Navigation, GNSS, GPS, DSMAC/TERCOM
• Design Features:
  • Low-altitude flight profile to evade radar and missile defenses
  • Turbojet engine (possibly NESCOM NTJ-V1)
  • Precision-strike capability against both land and sea targets

• Scientific Name: Camelus bactrianus
• Distinctive Feature: Two humps that store fat, not water.
• Habitat: Harsh cold deserts of Central Asia (Afghanistan, Mongolia, Gobi Desert) and small populations in Ladakh’s Nubra Valley.
• Adaptations:
  • Thick shaggy coat for freezing winters.
  • Can survive with minimal water and food.
  • Eats thorny vegetation and withstands extreme temperature swings.
• Domestication: About 2 million domesticated camels exist worldwide.
• Conservation Status: Wild Bactrian camels are critically endangered, while domesticated ones are more common.

• In Ladakh: Known as “silent warriors,” they are used for transport and tourism in Nubra Valley.
• Military Role: Recently inducted by the Indian Army’s Remount & Veterinary Corps (RVC) in 2024. They can carry up to 250 kg loads across freezing, oxygen-scarce terrain above 15,000 ft.

• Location: Reasi district, Jammu & Kashmir, India
• River: Chenab River
• Capacity: 690 MW (Stage I: 345 MW, Stage II: 345 MW)
• Commissioning: Stage I in 1987, Stage II in 1995
• Operator: NHPC (National Hydroelectric Power Corporation)
• Dam Type: Gravity dam, 113 m high and 487 m long
• Reservoir: Creates Salal Lake with a total capacity of ~280 million m³
• Spillways: 12 ogee spillways with a discharge capacity of 22,427 m³/s

• Siltation: Continuous sediment inflow from the Chenab has reduced reservoir efficiency, requiring costly removal operations.
• Geopolitical Sensitivity: As part of the Indus basin, Salal has historically been a point of contention between India and Pakistan under the IWT.
• Environmental Impact: Large reservoirs alter river ecology, affecting downstream flow and local biodiversity.

• Domain of Life: Archaea form one of the three domains of life (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya).
• Structure: Like bacteria, they are prokaryotic (no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles).
• Unique Traits: Their cell membranes and walls are chemically distinct, often using ether-linked lipids instead of ester-linked ones found in bacteria.

• Extreme Survivors: Many archaea are extremophiles, living in boiling hot springs, highly saline lakes, acidic mines, or deep-sea hydrothermal vents.
• Metabolism: Some produce methane (methanogens), others thrive in high salt (halophiles), or high temperatures (thermophiles).
• Genetics: Their DNA replication and transcription machinery resemble eukaryotes more than bacteria.
• Non-pathogenic: Unlike bacteria, no archaea are known to cause disease in humans.

• Methanogens: Found in swamps and animal guts, producing methane.
• Halophiles: Survive in salt-rich environments like the Dead Sea.
• Thermophiles: Thrive in hot springs above 80°C.
• Psychrophiles: Live in Arctic ice.

Feature	Archaea	Bacteria	Eukarya
Cell type	Prokaryotic	Prokaryotic	Eukaryotic
Nucleus	Absent	Absent	Present
Membrane lipids	Ether-linked	Ester-linked	Ester-linked
Cell wall	No peptidoglycan (varies)	Peptidoglycan	Cellulose (plants) or none
Extremophiles	Common	Rare	Rare
Pathogenic species	None known	Many	Some (fungi, protozoa)
Genetic similarity	Closer to eukaryotes	Distinct	Self

• Environmental Role: Crucial in carbon and nitrogen cycles (e.g., methane production and oxidation).
• Biotechnology: Enzymes from archaea (like thermostable DNA polymerases) are used in PCR and industrial processes.
• Evolutionary Insight: They provide clues about the origin of eukaryotic cells, as some archaea share close ancestry with them.

• Discovery (1898): Unearthed by William Claxton Peppé, an English estate manager, at a Buddhist stupa in Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh.
• Contents:
  • 349 gemstones (sapphires, rubies, crystals)
  • Bone fragments believed to belong to Lord Buddha
  • Crystal caskets, sandstone coffer, ornaments
• Colonial Removal: Taken abroad during British colonial rule, symbolizing cultural loss.
• Repatriation (2025): Returned to India after 127 years, thanks to efforts by the Government of India and the Godrej Group.

• Civilisational Heritage: PM Modi emphasized that these relics are not mere artefacts but an inseparable part of India’s civilisation and spiritual identity.
• Global Connection: The relics have traveled to countries like Vietnam, Thailand, and Russia, inspiring waves of devotion.
• Symbolism: Their return highlights India’s role as both custodian and living carrier of Buddha’s tradition.

• Shift from consumer tech to deeptech: Earlier unicorns were built on rapid user growth (e.g., fintech, SaaS). Now, startups are focusing on hard science and engineering.
• High capital intensity: Deeptech requires longer gestation periods and sustained funding, unlike quick-scaling consumer apps.
• Tier-2 and Tier-3 city expansion: Startups are increasingly emerging outside metros, tapping into new talent pools and cost advantages.
• Focus on profitability & sustainability: The ecosystem is maturing, with investors demanding structured funding, measurable impact, and resilient models.
• IPO readiness: 2025 saw record-breaking startup listings, showing that deeptech firms are preparing for public markets.

Domain	Example Focus Areas	Why It Matters
Artificial Intelligence	Generative AI, applied AI in healthcare & governance	India positioning as global AI hub
Space Technology	Satellite launch, space data analytics	Strategic for defense & communication
Semiconductors	Chip design, fabrication	Reduces import dependency, boosts self-reliance
Robotics	Industrial automation, drones	Enhances manufacturing competitiveness
Quantum Computing	Secure communication, advanced computing	Long-term strategic advantage
Climate Innovation	Renewable energy, carbon capture	Aligns with sustainability goals

• Government push: Initiatives like Startup India and Digital India are fostering R&D-heavy ventures.
• Global positioning: India is seen as a cost-effective innovation hub with strong engineering talent.
• Soonicorns (potential unicorns): A cohort of startups in AI, semiconductors, and climate tech are expected to cross billion-dollar valuations by 2026.

• #100DesiDeepTechs initiative – Launched with Startup India, MEITY Startup Hub, and IIT Madras to identify and support the top 100 deeptech startups.
• IndiaAI Mission – National program to boost AI research, innovation, and commercialization.
• Semicon India Program – Focused on semiconductor manufacturing and design, enabling deeptech ventures in hardware.
• Defence indigenisation push – Encouraging startups in spacetech, defence manufacturing, and strategic technologies.
• DeepTech Startup Showcase (ESTIC 2025) – Government-backed platform highlighting 30 pioneering startups across quantum, cybersecurity, health, semiconductors, AI, and Industry 4.0.
• VC funding momentum – Venture capital firms increasing larger investments in deeptech startups, with $1.57B raised across 265 deals in 2025.

• Funding cycles: Deeptech requires patient capital; short-term investors may hesitate.
• Talent gaps: Advanced skills in quantum, chip design, and robotics are still limited.
• Commercialization hurdles: Moving from lab to market is slower compared to consumer tech.
• Global competition: US, China, and EU deeptech ecosystems are ahead in scale and patents.

• Type: Universal multi-calibre long-range rocket launcher
• Range: Precision strikes at 150 km and 300 km
• Accuracy: Less than 5 meters off target
• Manufacturer: NIBE Limited (India)
• Technology Partner: Elbit Systems (Israel)
• Technology Base: Adapted from Israel’s PULS (Precise & Universal Launching System)
• Procurement: Emergency powers, ₹293 crore contract signed on 3 January 2026

• Boosts Deep-Strike Capability: Extends the Indian Army’s artillery reach far beyond traditional systems.
• Multi-Calibre Flexibility: Can fire different rocket types, including loitering munitions, enabling simultaneous strikes on multiple targets.
• Complementary Role: Designed to work alongside DRDO’s upcoming Pinaka Mk-II/III systems, which will also reach up to 300 km.
• Aatmanirbhar Bharat Push: Strengthens India’s defense self-reliance while leveraging international collaboration.

• Size & Weight: Adults grow up to 80 cm in shell length and weigh between 40–50 kg.
• Appearance: Heart-shaped olive-green carapace with 5–9 pairs of scutes (scales).
• Distribution: Found in tropical and subtropical oceans worldwide, especially the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans.
• Lifespan: Estimated 30–50 years.
• Nesting Behavior: Famous for arribadas, where thousands of females come ashore simultaneously to lay eggs.
• Reproduction: Females lay ~100 eggs per clutch, often nesting annually or even twice a season.
• Navigation: They use Earth’s magnetic field as a “biological GPS” to return to natal beaches.

• IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
• CITES: Appendix I (trade prohibited)
• Threats:
  • Bycatch in fishing gear
  • Egg harvesting and poaching
  • Habitat degradation and coastal development
  • Ocean pollution and marine debris
  • Predation of eggs/hatchlings by invasive species

• Genetic Code Shift: In most organisms, stop codons (signals to end protein synthesis) halt translation. But in these Antarctic microbes, one stop codon instead encodes a rare amino acid.
• Rare Amino Acids:
  • Pyrrolysine – sometimes called the “22nd amino acid,” found in certain archaea.
  • Selenocysteine – another rare amino acid, incorporated in humans but unusual in microbes.
• Microbial Adaptation: These microbes thrive in extreme cold and high UV radiation, and their altered genetic code may give them unique biochemical resilience.

• Breaks Biology’s Golden Rule: Traditionally, each codon corresponds to one amino acid or a stop signal. These microbes overturn that strict rule, showing genetic flexibility.
• Biotech Potential:
  • Could allow scientists to engineer proteins with new functions.
  • May lead to novel biomaterials or enzymes that perform better in extreme conditions.
• Evolutionary Insight: Demonstrates how life adapts to harsh environments, expanding our understanding of genetic diversity.

• Protein Misfolding: Altered codes could cause instability if applied outside their native environment.
• Bioengineering Complexity: Incorporating rare amino acids into synthetic biology requires precise control.
• Ethical Concerns: Manipulating microbial genetics raises questions about unintended ecological impacts.

• Genetic origin: HD is caused by a DNA error in the huntingtin gene. This mutation leads to abnormal protein buildup that damages brain cells, especially in the striatum, which controls movement, mood, and behavior.
• Inheritance: It is an autosomal dominant disorder—if one parent carries the defective gene, each child has a 50% chance of inheriting it.
• Progression: Symptoms worsen over time, with gradual loss of independence.

• Motor symptoms: Involuntary, dance-like movements (chorea), abnormal postures, difficulty with voluntary movement, impaired coordination.
• Cognitive symptoms: Decline in memory, concentration, decision-making, and problem-solving.
• Psychiatric symptoms: Depression, irritability, personality changes, and sometimes psychosis.
• Onset: Usually between ages 30–50, but juvenile HD can appear before age 20.

• Genetic testing: Confirms the presence of the huntingtin mutation.
• Neurological exams: Assess motor control, reflexes, and mental status.
• Brain imaging (MRI/CT): Shows shrinkage in affected brain regions.

• Medications:
  • Antipsychotics (for mood/behavioral issues).
  • Tetrabenazine or deutetrabenazine (reduce chorea).
• Therapies: Physical, occupational, and speech therapy to maintain function.
• Supportive care: Counseling, nutrition management, and social support.

• Traditional view: Terrorism was earlier understood mainly as acts of extreme violence—bombings, killings, armed attacks.
• New interpretation: The SC clarified that terror under Section 15 of UAPA is not limited to physical violence. It can also cover:

• Disruption of essential services (transport, communication, healthcare, etc.)
• Threats to economic stability or national security
• Acts that destabilize civic life or create widespread fear, even without bloodshed.

• Broader scope of UAPA: This interpretation makes it easier for authorities to apply UAPA charges in cases beyond traditional terror attacks.
• Impact on protests: Critics argue this risks conflating dissent or protest with terrorism, since disruption of civic life could be interpreted broadly.
• Bail challenges: Expanded definition means longer incarceration without trial, as bail under UAPA is already very stringent.
• Legal debates: Raises questions about balancing national security vs. civil liberties.

• Spina bifida is a birth defect where the spine and spinal cord don’t form properly, leading to varying degrees of disability depending on severity and location of the defect.
• It is a type of neural tube defect that occurs very early in pregnancy when the neural tube fails to close completely.
• A congenital condition caused by incomplete closure of the neural tube during early fetal development.

• Meaning of the term: Latin for “split spine.”
• Types:
  • Spina bifida occulta: Mildest form, often symptomless, sometimes only a small patch of hair or dimple on the back.
  • Meningocele: A sac of fluid protrudes through the spine, but the spinal cord is not involved.
  • Myelomeningocele: Most severe form, where spinal cord and nerves protrude, leading to significant disability.

• Genetic and environmental factors contribute.
• Key risk factors:
  • Lack of folic acid during pregnancy.
  • Certain anti-seizure medications.
  • Obesity or poorly controlled diabetes in the mother.

• Visible signs: Hairy patch, dimple, swelling, or dark spot on lower back.
• Functional complications:
  • Difficulty walking or paralysis.
  • Bladder and bowel control problems.
  • Hydrocephalus (fluid buildup in the brain).
  • Tethered spinal cord.
  • Latex allergy.

• Folic acid supplementation before and during pregnancy is the most effective preventive measure.
• Recommended daily intake: 400 micrograms for women of childbearing age.

• Surgery: Can be performed after birth or even prenatally to close the spinal opening.
• Supportive care: Physical therapy, mobility aids, bladder/bowel management, and treatment for hydrocephalus.
• Prognosis: Varies widely; mild cases may live normal lives, while severe cases require lifelong care.

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