Daily Current Affairs 2025  

29/09/2025

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CA-29/09/2025

Jatra folk art is currently undergoing both revival and adaptation efforts across Eastern India and Bangladesh. Cultural festivals like Delhi's Durga Puja and Tripura's Jatra Utsav in 2025 are showcasing classic performances, integrating traditional props, and attracting new audiences, while UNESCO has noted its intangible heritage importance in Bangladesh.
Recent Cultural Revivals

• In 2025, Delhi's Durga Puja festivals featured live jatra enactments and props, highlighting revival and outreach efforts for new generations.
• Tripura organized Jatra Utsav to promote the theatre form and its cultural contribution to Eastern India, signaling government and community backing.

Evolving Performance Styles

• Traditional Jatra mixed song, dance, and heroic mythologies, but now combines historical, social, and modern themes—incorporating Western lighting, spoken dialogue, and contemporary staging.
• Audience preferences have shifted, with jatra troupes experimenting with film-inspired plots, technology (recorded music, microphones), and modern makeup and costumes.

Challenges and Adaptation

• The natural musical heritage is threatened by commercialization, star-centric shows, and increased reliance on pre-written songs and recorded sound.
• Despite declining rural popularity, hybrid adaptations are influencing modern Bangla theatre, blending folk elements and engaging urban audiences.

Heritage and International Recognition

• UNESCO acknowledged Bangladesh's efforts to inscribe Jatra as Intangible Cultural Heritage, noting its social messaging and role in mass communication at rural festivals, as well as active promotion through workshops, stage events, and intergenerational learning.
• In Bengal, over six lakh people are directly linked to jatra, with seasonal festivals like Rath Yatra increasing bookings and hope for artistes.

 Contemporary Jatra Highlights

• Social and mythological themes are interwoven with modern issues and comedic elements today.
• Modern productions integrate improvisation and melodramatic acting, but sometimes face criticism for fusion experiments.

Jatra remains a vibrant, albeit challenged, folk art—continuously evolving through heritage events, experiments with new formats, and renewed efforts at popularization in both India and Bangladesh.
  While the core provisions of India's National Security Act (NSA) of 1980 remain unchanged, its recent application has received significant attention. In 2025, the law gained prominence due to the detention of climate activist Sonam Wangchuk and a Supreme Court decision quashing a detention order. 
High-profile application of the NSA in 2025

• Detention of Sonam Wangchuk (September 2025): The climate activist was detained under the NSA in Leh, Ladakh, following protests demanding statehood and special protections under the Constitution's Sixth Schedule. Authorities accused him of instigating violence, while critics condemned the use of the stringent law against a peaceful activist.
• The Act empowers both the Central and state governments to detain individuals pre-emptively for up to 12 months on grounds such as threats to the defense of India, relations with foreign powers, state security, communal harmony, disruption of essential services, or smuggling.

Procedure, Safeguards, and Review

• Detainees must be informed of the grounds for detention within 5 to 15 days, and an Advisory Board (comprising High Court judges) must review the detention within three weeks; the Board can order release if no sufficient cause is found.
• Detainees can challenge their detention by submitting a representation to the government or through writ petitions in the High Court or Supreme Court.
• The law provides limited safeguards, such as the right to representation before the Advisory Board, though no legal counsel is allowed directly before it, and the government can withhold facts in the public interest.

Current Status and Continuing Relevance

• The NSA is still considered a necessary tool for national and economic security, especially in sensitive situations such as protests or unrest that could affect public order or essential services.
• The political and legal debate about the scope of preventive detention and possible misuse remains active, especially following recent detentions of activists and protest leaders.

Amendments or court rulings on the NSA in 2025
In 2025, the National Security Act (NSA) saw critical judicial scrutiny through major High Court and Supreme Court rulings, but there were no substantial parliamentary amendments reported as of September 2025.
Supreme Court Ruling: Procedural Safeguards

• On June 27, 2025, the Supreme Court ordered the immediate release of a law student from Madhya Pradesh detained under the NSA, ruling the detention was “wholly untenable” because the reasons cited did not meet the statutory requirements, particularly those outlined in Section 3(2) of the Act.
• The court emphasized the difference between “law and order” and “public order,” stating that the grounds for NSA detention must surpass a threshold of threat and not be based on ordinary criminal allegations.

High Court Ruling: Mandatory Timelines

• In June 2025, the Manipur High Court quashed a preventive detention order under the NSA due to authorities failing to provide the grounds of detention within the prescribed period of five days (extended to ten days only with written justification).
• The court reinforced that procedural timelines under Section 8 of the NSA are mandatory and any unexplained delay renders detention illegal, thereby upholding Article 22 protections for personal liberty.

No Parliamentary Amendments
There were no major legislative changes or amendments to the NSA in Parliament during 2025, with attention focused instead on judicial oversight and procedural implementation in individual cases.
Key Implications

• Recent judgments have reinforced procedural safeguards and set higher benchmarks for government action under the NSA, warning against arbitrary preventive detention and stressing judicial scrutiny for individual liberty.
• Authorities are required to strictly document reasons for delay or deviation from statutory procedures, reflecting a robust check on executive powers.

These court rulings in 2025 underscore the continuing tension between state security prerogatives and individual rights, with the judiciary playing an active role in scrutinizing and balancing the preventive detention regime under the NSA.

NSA at the 8th National Security Strategies Conference

In July 2025, the Minister of Home Affairs, Amit Shah, addressed the 8th National Security Strategies (NSS) Conference. While discussing national security challenges and strategies, he emphasized the need for better coordination between central and state agencies to address threats. This conference highlighted the government's focus on proactively using security measures to address perceived threats.
 
Ongoing criticisms of the NSA
The recent detentions have renewed long-standing debates and criticism surrounding the NSA. 

• Violation of fundamental rights: Legal experts and civil rights groups have pointed to the law's potential for misuse. It allows for preventive detention without a formal charge or trial for up to 12 months and denies the detainee the right to legal counsel during the Advisory Board proceedings.
• History of misuse: Critics highlight a pattern of governments invoking the NSA for reasons beyond national security, such as silencing dissent, controlling political opponents, or reacting to minor law and order issues. Past instances, including detentions during the anti-CAA protests and cases like Dr. Kafeel Khan's, have been questioned or struck down by courts.
• Calls for judicial oversight: Legal analyses suggest a need for stronger judicial oversight and potential reforms to provisions of the NSA, such as introducing a sunset clause to prevent indefinite incarceration without trial. 

OPEC and its expanded alliance, OPEC+, are currently in the process of increasing oil production after years of major output cuts. At their upcoming October 5, 2025 meeting, OPEC+ is widely expected to approve another production hike of at least 137,000 barrels per day for November, mirroring the increase already scheduled for October.
Recent Production Changes

• Since April 2025, OPEC+ has started unwinding its previous deep output cuts, following a strategy aimed at regaining global market share while attempting to stabilize oil prices around the $60–$70 per barrel range.
• The largest output hike this year was 555,000 barrels per day, seen in August and September, with smaller increases (137,000 bpd each) planned for October and November as the group proceeds cautiously.
• The United Arab Emirates received special permission to increase its own production by 300,000 barrels per day between April and September 2025.

Supply Cuts and Unwinding Timeline

• OPEC+ had peak cuts of 5.85 million barrels per day, made up of 2.2 million bpd in voluntary reductions, another 1.65 million bpd from eight members, and 2 million bpd from the entire coalition.
• The first layer of 2.2 million bpd is set to be fully unwound by September’s end, with the second layer of 1.65 million bpd being gradually restored in increments, now reaching 137,000 bpd per month.
• The final group-wide cut of 2 million bpd is scheduled to remain in effect until end-2026, ensuring some supply restraint stays in place.

Market Reactions

• Oil prices have slipped slightly in recent days on the expectation of growing supply, but remain above $70 per barrel, partly due to disruptions in Russian exports from geopolitical tensions.
• Analysts observe that actual OPEC+ output hikes often lag behind official pledges because many members are near their production capacity.

Geopolitical and Policy Drivers

• The group’s production changes have been influenced by global diplomatic pressure, especially from President Donald Trump, who wants lower energy prices to curb inflation.
• Additional supply is meant to manage revenue for member states and keep market share as global demand recovers moderately post-pandemic.

In summary, OPEC+ is cautiously increasing oil production, with the next output hike decision set for October 5, 2025, targeting at least an additional 137,000 bpd for November as they value price stability while aiming to regain lost market share.

About OPEC and OPEC+

OPEC is an official intergovernmental organization of 12 oil-exporting countries, while OPEC+ is a broader, ad hoc coalition that includes OPEC members along with 10 major non-OPEC oil producers, such as Russia. OPEC+ was formed to expand cooperation and better influence the global oil market, particularly following the rise of competing oil sources like U.S. shale. 

Key differences

Feature	OPEC	OPEC+
Membership	A formal, intergovernmental organization of 12 member countries.	Includes the 12 OPEC members plus 10 non-OPEC oil exporters.
Founding	Founded in Baghdad, Iraq, in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela.	Formed in late 2016 as an alliance between OPEC and other oil-producing nations.
Purpose	To coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and stabilize oil markets.	To manage the global oil market more effectively by incorporating major non-OPEC producers.
Key non-OPEC members	Not applicable	Russia, Mexico, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Brunei, Malaysia, Oman, South Sudan, and Sudan.
Market share	Controls a significant share of global oil reserves, but OPEC+ has a larger influence over global production levels.	Controls a larger percentage of global oil production, giving it more influence over international oil prices.
Influence	While influential, its power can be challenged by market developments like the rise of non-OPEC producers.	Has a stronger and broader market influence due to its larger share of global oil supply.

How they influence oil prices
Both groups attempt to manage global oil prices by controlling supply, typically through coordinated production cuts or increases based on market conditions. 

• Production cuts: When global oil prices are too low, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic, OPEC+ has agreed to significant production cuts to limit supply and raise prices. For example, a large production cut by OPEC+ was announced in October 2022 to boost prices amid recession concerns.
• Production increases: Conversely, if the price of oil is too high, OPEC+ can boost supply to prevent negative impacts on the global economy.
• Challenges to influence: The group's ability to control prices is not absolute. Factors such as disagreements among members over production quotas, the rise of competitors like U.S. shale oil, and shifts toward renewable energy can limit their market power over the long term. 

The latest news on the Agri-Stack scheme in Uttar Pradesh as of late September 2025 highlights a stern warning issued by the Uttar Pradesh government to district magistrates (DMs) to complete farmer registrations under the Agri-Stack scheme within the specified timeframe.
DMs were given a deadline starting October 16, 2025, with one month to ensure 100% farmer registration, essential for the scheme's implementation. Those failing to meet this deadline may face strict action. 

About Agri-Stack Scheme.

The Agri-Stack scheme is a digital public infrastructure being built by the Indian government to create a centralized, integrated database for the agriculture sector. Approved as part of the Digital Agriculture Mission in September 2024, the initiative aims to improve farm productivity, farmers' incomes, and the delivery of government services by leveraging data and digital technology. The framework uses a consent-based system to ensure data privacy and is a collaborative effort between the central and state governments. 

Key components

• Farmer Registry: A nationwide, federated database that provides a unique digital ID for every farmer based on their Aadhaar information. It includes demographic and landholding details for service and scheme delivery.
• Geo-referenced Village Maps: Location-specific maps of agricultural land parcels that enable precision farming and allow services to be tailored to specific plots.
• Crop Sown Registry: A real-time database that tracks what crops are being grown on each plot every season, based on data collected via digital crop surveys.
• Unified Farmer Service Interface (UFSI): An open-source, interoperable API gateway that allows authorized public and private stakeholders—such as banks, agri-tech companies, and government agencies—to access farmer data with consent.
• Consent Manager: A privacy framework built around the Data Empowerment and Protection Architecture (DEPA). It gives farmers control over their personal data, allowing them to grant and revoke consent for data sharing.
• Agri Stack Sandbox: A safe testing environment for start-ups and other developers to build and test new digital agriculture services. 

Benefits for farmers

• Improved access to credit: Enables financial institutions to assess creditworthiness more accurately, leading to faster, hassle-free, and paperless loan approvals, such as for Kisan Credit Card loans.
• Better access to insurance: Streamlines crop insurance enrollment and reduces the time needed for claim processing, providing more reliable financial security.
• Efficient subsidy delivery: Ensures that government benefits and subsidies are delivered to the intended beneficiaries directly and transparently.
• Enhanced market access: Connects farmers directly to buyers through digital platforms like e-NAM, reducing the role of intermediaries and helping farmers get better prices for their produce.
• Personalized advisory services: Provides farmers with timely and specific advice on soil health, crop patterns, and weather conditions by using data analytics.
• Risk mitigation: Offers early warning systems for natural disasters, pest attacks, and other risks to help farmers make better decisions and reduce crop losses. 

 Challenges and concerns

• Data privacy and security: There are concerns that without robust data protection laws, private companies could misuse farmers' sensitive data. The implementation of the Consent Manager is intended to address this.
• Digital divide: A significant portion of the rural population has limited digital literacy and poor internet connectivity, which could hinder the adoption of digital tools and exclude marginalized farmers.
• Exclusion of tenant farmers: The reliance on land records could exclude tenant farmers, sharecroppers, and landless laborers from receiving benefits, creating new inequities.
• Potential for commercialization: The involvement of the private sector in developing services raises concerns that agriculture extension activities could become commercialized and profit-driven.
• Infrastructure costs: The creation and maintenance of the digital infrastructure requires substantial investment.
• Data accuracy and disputes: Digital land records may have inaccuracies, which could lead to disputes over land ownership or rights that are complex and time-consuming to resolve. 

The latest news on the Study In India (SII) Portal as of September 2025 highlights that the University Grants Commission (UGC) mandated all foreign nationals studying in Indian Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) to register on the SII portal. 

About Study In India (SII) Portal

The Study In India (SII) Portal is a one-stop digital platform launched by the Government of India to facilitate the entire academic journey for international students. It serves as the official, unified gateway for foreign nationals seeking to pursue higher education in India. 
The portal was jointly launched on August 3, 2023, by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of External Affairs, and the Ministry of Home Affairs to position India as a premier, affordable, and high-quality global education hub. 
 
Key features of the SII Portal

• Mandatory registration and SII-ID: All international students must register on the portal and receive a unique SII-ID before they can apply for an Indian student visa. This ID is essential for all academic and visa-related procedures.
• Centralized application system: The portal allows students to explore and apply to over 600 partner institutions and thousands of courses through a single, transparent online process. It is the primary interface for course selection, applications, and communication.
• e-Student visa integration: The portal is integrated with the Indian Visa Portal, allowing for faster and more transparent e-Student visa processing. Students use their SII-ID to apply for their visa online.
• Extensive course offerings: The platform showcases a wide range of programs, including undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral levels. It also features courses related to the Indian Knowledge System, such as yoga, Ayurveda, and classical arts.
• Quality assurance: Participating institutions must meet strict eligibility criteria, such as a high ranking by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) or accreditation by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC).
• Financial assistance: While the portal itself doesn't offer scholarships, students can explore institute-driven financial aid and tuition fee waivers, which are awarded based on academic merit.
• 24/7 support: The Study in India team offers around-the-clock support to students through a helpdesk and social media channels. 

Benefits for international students

• Simplified process: The portal eliminates the need to navigate multiple institutional websites and complex visa procedures, streamlining the entire journey from application to immigration.
• Transparent and fair admissions: The merit-based, online system removes human intervention from the application process, ensuring fairness and clarity for applicants.
• Access to top institutions: Students gain entry to a curated network of over 600 of India's top universities and colleges, offering world-class education at an affordable price.
• Holistic experience: The program promotes a well-rounded academic and personal experience, allowing students to immerse themselves in India's diverse culture.
• Dedicated support: Students receive comprehensive assistance with their applications, visa procedures, and post-admission support to ensure a smooth transition and study period. 

On September 28, 2025, India's first multi-wavelength space observatory, AstroSat, completed 10 years of operation. Exceeding its five-year mission life, the observatory continues to provide valuable data to the scientific community. 

Recent discoveries and observations

• AstroSat's recent contributions include shedding light on the internal structure of neutron stars and detecting X-ray bursts from a magnetar.
• It has also observed gas behavior and jet formation around black holes, and in July 2025, identified fast X-ray flickers (QPOs) around a black hole.
• The observatory's ultraviolet capabilities have allowed it to witness the formation of dwarf galaxies, and it has provided crucial data on rapidly spinning black holes.
• Additionally, AstroSat has collaborated with NASA observatories to study eruptions around a massive black hole. 

Decade of discoveries

Since its launch in 2015, AstroSat has made numerous discoveries, including solving a long-standing mystery about a bright red giant star.

• It detected extreme ultraviolet light from an early galaxy and has helped characterize star formation in "Jellyfish galaxies".
• AstroSat also observed X-ray polarization from the Crab Pulsar and mapped an emission region in the Butterfly Nebula. 

About AstroSat

AstroSat is India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory, launched by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) on September 28, 2015.

• Designed to study celestial sources across the electromagnetic spectrum, it provides a unique capability for simultaneous observation in the X-ray, ultraviolet (UV), and optical bands.
• This allows scientists to gain comprehensive insights into the same cosmic phenomena at different energy levels. 

Key features

• Multi-wavelength capability: A primary feature is the ability to observe the cosmos in multiple wavelengths simultaneously. This overcomes the limitations of ground-based telescopes, as Earth's atmosphere blocks out high-energy X-rays and ultraviolet radiation.
• Long operational life: Though its designed mission life was five years, AstroSat has continued to provide valuable data and celebrated its 10th anniversary in September 2025.
• International collaboration: The project is a collaborative effort involving premier Indian research institutions and international partners from the UK and Canada.
• Open observatory: It operates as an observatory-class satellite, with observing time available to the global scientific community through a proposal system. 

Scientific payloads

AstroSat carries five specialized instruments for its multi-wavelength observations: 

• Ultra Violet Imaging Telescope (UVIT): Consists of two telescopes for imaging in far-UV (FUV), near-UV (NUV), and visible bands. It has achieved an angular resolution superior to many other UV telescopes.
• Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT): Uses X-ray mirrors and a CCD camera for imaging and spectral studies in the 0.3–8 keV energy range.
• Large Area X-ray Proportional Counter (LAXPC): A cluster of three gas detectors designed for X-ray timing and spectral studies in the 3–80 keV band.
• Cadmium Zinc Telluride Imager (CZTI): A coded mask camera for hard X-ray imaging (10–100 keV). It is also capable of measuring X-ray polarization.
• Scanning Sky Monitor (SSM): An all-sky monitor for detecting and tracking transient X-ray sources. 

Scientific objectives

AstroSat is dedicated to a range of astrophysical studies, including: 

• Black holes and neutron stars: Understanding high-energy processes in binary star systems containing black holes and neutron stars.
• Star formation: Studying regions of star birth and the high-energy processes in star systems beyond the Milky Way.
• Transient sources: Detecting and monitoring new, briefly bright X-ray sources.
• UV surveys: Performing deep-field surveys of the Universe in the ultraviolet region.
• Spectroscopic studies: Conducting broadband spectral analysis of various cosmic sources, including X-ray binaries and active galactic nuclei (AGNs).

Key achievements

• Discovered an early galaxy: Detected extreme-UV light from AUDFs01, a galaxy located 9.3 billion light-years away, marking a significant breakthrough.
• Studied X-ray polarization: CZTI successfully measured X-ray polarization from the Crab pulsar, providing new insights into the radiation mechanisms of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs).
• Pioneered high-resolution UV imaging: UVIT provided exceptional high-resolution images, leading to the first detection of young stars in the bulge of the Andromeda galaxy.
• Insight into black holes: Its observations have provided deeper insights into the behavior of black holes and their interaction with surrounding matter.

The Centre recently unveiled operational guidelines for the rollout of nearly 72,300 public electric vehicle (EV) charging stations across the country, with an outlay of Rs 2,000 crore under the Rs 10,900 crore PM E-DRIVE scheme.

About PM E-DRIVE Scheme

The PM Electric Drive Revolution in Innovative Vehicle Enhancement (PM E-DRIVE) Scheme is an initiative by the Indian government to accelerate the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), build charging infrastructure, and develop the domestic EV manufacturing industry. Announced on September 29, 2024, it replaced earlier programs like FAME-II and EMPS-2024. 
 
Key objectives

• Increase EV adoption: The scheme provides upfront financial incentives to make purchasing EVs more affordable for buyers.
• Expand charging network: It supports the establishment of a robust network of public EV charging stations to address range anxiety among consumers.
• Strengthen manufacturing: Through a Phased Manufacturing Program (PMP), the scheme encourages local production of EVs and their components, boosting the "Aatmanirbhar Bharat" (self-reliant India) initiative.
• Reduce pollution: By promoting e-mobility, the scheme aims to lower transportation-related emissions and improve air quality. 

Scheme details and components

The PM E-DRIVE scheme has a financial outlay of ?10,900 crore, initially running from October 1, 2024, to March 31, 2026. In August 2025, the scheme was extended for electric trucks, buses, and testing agencies until March 31, 2028. 

Demand incentives for vehicles

The scheme provides direct purchase subsidies for several categories of EVs, which are claimed via an Aadhaar-authenticated e-voucher. 

• Electric two-wheelers (e-2Ws): Up to ?10,000 per vehicle in FY25 (?5,000/kWh), and up to ?5,000 in FY26 (?2,500/kWh). Both personal and commercial e-2Ws with advanced batteries are eligible.
• Electric three-wheelers (e-3Ws): Subsidies are provided for commercial e-rickshaws, e-carts, and L5 vehicles equipped with advanced batteries.
• Electric buses (e-buses): A budget of ?4,391 crore is allocated for the procurement of over 14,000 e-buses for public transport agencies in major cities.
• E-ambulances and e-trucks: Specific funds of ?500 crore each are allocated to promote the use of e-ambulances and e-trucks. E-truck incentives require a scrapping certificate for old vehicles. 

Charging infrastructure development

The scheme allocates ?2,000 crore to establish over 72,300 new public charging stations. 

• Subsidies: Tiered subsidies cover costs for upstream infrastructure and charging equipment, with higher support for high-priority locations like government premises, transport hubs, and highways.
• Nodal agency: Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd (BHEL) acts as the Project Implementation Agency for deploying public charging stations.
• Digital Hub: A national-level mobile application will allow users to locate, book, and pay for charging slots. 

Upgradation of testing agencies

A budget of ?780 crore is allocated to modernize and upgrade testing facilities under the Ministry of Heavy Industries to handle new EV technologies. 

Eligibility and claim process

• Eligibility: Only vehicles with advanced batteries and valid certificates from recognized testing agencies are eligible. For individual buyers, only one EV per category qualifies for the subsidy.
• Application: Upon purchase, the dealer generates an Aadhaar-authenticated e-voucher for the buyer. After being signed by both parties, the e-voucher is used by the manufacturer (OEM) to claim reimbursement from the government.
• Exclusions: EVs purchased by government departments or agencies are not eligible for demand incentives. 

World Heart Day 2025 is observed on September 29, with the theme 
"Don't Miss a Beat". This year marks the 25th anniversary of the initiative, which aims to raise global awareness about cardiovascular diseases (CVDs).

Theme: "Don't Miss a Beat"
The 2025 theme is a powerful call to action that emphasizes the importance of vigilance and proactive care for heart health. Key aspects of this theme include: 

• Encouraging vigilance: Individuals are urged to pay attention to their bodies and not ignore potential early warning signs of heart problems, such as chest pain or an irregular heartbeat.
• Timely medical intervention: Regular check-ups and early screening are critical for prevention and management, potentially saving millions of lives.
• Proactive lifestyle choices: The campaign promotes adopting healthy habits without delay, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and stress management.

Importance
World Heart Day serves as a crucial global platform to address the burden of cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death worldwide. The day's significance includes:

• Mass awareness: The campaign reaches billions of people, educating them about the risk factors and serious nature of CVDs, which account for over 20.5 million deaths annually.

• Promotion of prevention: It highlights that up to 80% of premature heart disease and stroke deaths can be prevented through lifestyle changes and early intervention.
• Inspiration for action: World Heart Day motivates individuals to make healthy changes and encourages governments and policymakers to invest in better heart health initiatives. 

History

• Inception: The idea for World Heart Day was proposed by Antoni Bayés de Luna, the former president of the World Heart Federation (WHF).
• First Celebration: The WHF established the event in collaboration with the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1999, with the first celebration taking place on September 24, 2000.
• Fixed Date: Initially observed on the last Sunday of September, the date was fixed to September 29 in 2011 to increase global visibility. This was also to align with a global pledge in 2012 to reduce non-communicable disease deaths by 25% by 2025.

Key facts

• Date: World Heart Day is observed annually on September 29.
• Organizer: The event is organized by the World Heart Federation (WHF) in partnership with the World Health Organization (WHO) and various other international bodies.
• Focus: While the theme changes each year, the core focus remains on raising awareness about heart health and promoting preventive measures globally.
• Global killer: Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of death worldwide, with heart attacks and strokes accounting for a vast majority of these fatalities.
• Prevention: The day emphasizes that lifestyle choices—such as adopting a heart-healthy diet, staying physically active, managing stress, and quitting smoking—can prevent most CVDs.
• Advocacy: Beyond individual action, the WHF uses World Heart Day to advocate for stronger health policies and equitable access to cardiac care worldwide.

The Circular Flow of Income is an economic model that illustrates the continuous movement of money, goods, and services between different sectors of the economy, primarily households and firms. It depicts how households provide factors of production—such as labor, capital, land, and entrepreneurship—to firms in exchange for income in the form of wages, rent, interest, and profits. Firms use these factors to produce goods and services, which households purchase, creating an ongoing cycle of production, income generation, spending, and reinvestment.

Definition

Circular Flow of Income is the unending flow of payments and receipts for goods, services, and factor services between households and firms. These monetary and real flows demonstrate the interdependence of production, consumption, and income within an economy.
Types
There are two main types of flows in the Circular Flow of Income:

• Real Flow: This consists of the physical flow of factors of production from households to firms and the flow of goods and services from firms to households.
• Money Flow: This is the monetary movement where firms pay households for factor services in wages, rent, interest, and profits; households then spend this income on purchasing goods and services from firms.

Phases
The Circular Flow of Income can be understood in three key phases:

• Generation Phase: Firms use factors of production to produce goods and services, creating economic value and generating income.
• Distribution Phase: The income produced from goods and services is distributed to different factor owners—workers, landowners, capital providers, and entrepreneurs—in the form of wages, rent, interest, and profits.
• Disposition Phase: Households decide how to use their income: consumption, saving or investment, and paying taxes. The government then redistributes resources via public spending, completing the economic cycle.

Importance
The circular flow keeps the economy in motion by sustaining continuous production, income generation, and consumption. It highlights the relationships between sectors, showing how income earned is spent and reinvested, thereby supporting economic stability, growth, and wealth creation. It is the foundational concept underlying national accounts and macroeconomic analysis.
This model also helps reveal how leakages (savings, taxes, imports) and injections (investment, government spending, exports) affect the overall income flow, making it essential for understanding economic fluctuations and policy impacts.
Thus, the Circular Flow of Income is a fundamental framework to analyze the functioning of an economy through its income, production, and expenditure cycles.
 

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